Likenscapes: Ambassadors of the Axe

Peter McLaren (1882-1953) has been called Australia's chief "ambassador of the axe". Born near
Melbourne, he began competing at 16 years and at 24 (in 1906) had won championships in
both Victoria and Western Australia.  Peter died age 71 on November 27 at his home in Australia.

 

  

Cultures differ in what is considered normal and what is considered abnormal. Therefore, the conception of mental illness is tied into whether or not members of a culture will seek help, what kind of help these individuals will seek and from whom. It should be remembered that traditional psychotherapy evolved from both the existential and psychoanalytic framework imported from Europe. Sigmund Freud has become a household word, and it was his approach to psychoanalysis that influenced much of the psychodynamic approach that is used today. The humanistic approach associated with Carl Rogers is an offshoot of the European existential theories which were evaluated by American psychologists as being too morbid.

Don't let them tell you you're nuts!
Fox Squirrel
image credit Wildcare
 

When Nunnally (1960) researched public conceptions of mental illness in the United States, he asserted that he could see only two possible results: (1) that the public was "misinformed" in the sense that the "average"  person held numerous misconceptions about mental illness or (2) that the public was uninformed in the sense that the average  person had little information, correct or incorrect, about many of the problems related to mental illness. 

 

African Americans tend to seek treatment late in the progress of the disease. They first turn to the extended family, and other relationships, as well as their religious minister whenever they are experiencing stress. They find it less humiliating to do so. When all these resources are depleted, then and only then will they seek treatment from the mental health clinic and other services.. They tend to mistrust the therapist who is perceived as an outsider and see the role of the therapist as intrusive.

On the other hand, Zborowski (1969) pointed out that Italians were more interested in quick relief from pain and tended to overdramatize and exaggerate it. They bear some similarity to African Americans in their inclination to turn to and exhaust family resources before seeking treatment. It takes them a long time to trust outsiders. The Irish, in contrast tend to minimize and hide their pain.  They may also minimize their symptoms, leading to inaccurate diagnosis.

Axeman's Carnival 1915
Taumata Park, Eltham New Zealand
image nicked from Te Ara Encyclopedia of NZ

 

Jewish clients tend to be more interested in finding the source of the psychological problem, while Anglo-Americans attempt to deal with pain by individual efforts and have a great deal of confidence in medical orders and technological type of interventions.

 

Puerto Rican and other Hispanics underutilize mental health services. According to Padilla and Ruiz (1973), Puerto Ricans express pain through somatic symptoms. They turn to their families in their old neighbourhood for relief. Women are more likely than men to be seen as clients. Many of the stressors are related to their traditional role to preserve the family, role conflicts, marital conflicts, problems associated with raising adolescents rejecting parental values and stressors associated with the acculturation process. The physical symptoms they present are often combined with anxiety and depression. Puerto Ricans may equally seek help from a physician or spiritist.

 Mexican Americans (Miranda & Kitano, 1976) tend to hide mental illness and believe that it may be inherited or that prayers will help or cure it. Many depressed and suicidal Mexican American patients reported that they controlled suicidal thoughts and impulses because the Roman Catholic Church teaches that suicide is an unpardonable sin. The stage of acculturation may also determine whether the patient will seek treatment or depend on the resources of the extended family, or the Church. 

 

 

Rev John Harper and his daughter Annie (Nan)
image source Harper Memorial Baptist Church, Scotland

 

 

Polish Americans are least likely to seek psychological treatment unless their problem interferes with their ability to perform.  The value of stoicism is very deep. Mental illness is perceived as preventing them from performing, affecting issues of self control, and allowing dependency needs to surface. They mistrust outsiders and mental health agencies and look to the family, friends, priest and the community for help. Seeking help signifies weakness.  

Greek-Americans tend to perceive mental illness as a stigma. They see mental illness as having a negative effect on a permanent basis, not only for the patient but for all family members. They often try home remedies until the situation is out of their control before they present themselves for treatment. When they do, they are reported as somatic problems such as headaches, stomach pains and nerve troubles. The whole family may show interest in hearing what the diagnoses is and what it means. Each family member may blame the other for the problem.

Almond trees in bloom, early March near the north border of the
Palestinian West Bank near Jenin.
image Ferrell Jenkins

Caribbean individuals bring with them to the United States conceptions of mental illness and attitudes toward seeking psychological help. Carl Hinkle and Moss (1981) have pointed to the interconnectedness of religion and medicine. This relationship, according to these researchers, has extended into areas of both psychological and somatic complaints. They reported that 43 percent of individuals suffering from emotional problems first turn to the clergy  for help. The religion involved may not necessarily be Christian. It may be a combination of Christianity and aspects of African folk rituals found in Voodoo (Haiti),  Obeah (Jamaica) and Santeria (Cuba). Caribbean islanders here in the Unites States align themselves to religious practices similar to those in their homeland.

 

Many Caribbean islanders seen in clinical practice in the United States are referred from their jobs, the clergy, youth and family services or the legal system. This is particularly true of the lower socio-economic group. When the mental health system expanded on the islands from the narrow focus of hospitalization of the insane, to outpatient and private practice care, the middle and upper classes were the ones who were more willing to use these services. They also tend to have a wider view of mental illness and attach slightly less stigma to psychological problems. They are more like to seek treatment without having been referred.

"Gonna create a disturbance in your mind..."
image sourced milesago

On the whole, Caribbean islanders tend to have a very narrow view of mental illness. They believe that people should sort out their problems within the context of the family and not expose personal and private information to strangers. When the therapist is from their own country, they generally have  a more relaxed attitude, perceive the therapist as a friend, and engage in therapy for a longer time.

Reference: Conceptions of Mental Illness: Cultural Perspectives and
Treatment Implications ~ Lena Hall, associate professor in the Farquhar College of Arts and Sciences Division of Social and Behavioral Sciences at Nova Southeastern University, Florida. 
  

Gene Simmons AXE guitar
image